In the Ming dynasty, Yixing pottery did not have seal marks or stamps; instead, makers carved their own names. When ancient craftsmen applied their marks, the beginning of the characters faced the spout, and the end of the characters faced the handle. In the early Qing dynasty, the strainer holes inside the spout were typically one large opening. Fine, densely arranged holes indicate a later period. This relates to the folk practice of brewing tea with tea leaves. The slightly raised decorative patterns on the surface of Yixing teapots were created by applying prepared clay slip with a brush, slowly painting it on. The clay slip had to be ground as fine as ink, then applied with a writing brush, with additional work done where needed. Glazed Yixing ware began in the Qianlong period. It required two firings: first the body was fired at over 1000 degrees. The white glaze applied inside the vessel was then fired again at over 700 degrees. Gold-lacquered Yixing ware appeared after the Qianlong period. Having examined many teapots with poems carved by Chen Mansheng, most bear the base mark "Aman Tuo Studio" (阿曼陀室), never written as a single character. Dating historical Yixing works is often difficult due to the lack of historical records and the absence of marks or inscriptions. --- [Page number: 148]